Impact of Surface Roughness on Quasi-Steady In-Ground Effect for Hover-capable Aerial Vehicles, C. G. Kou, J. R. Stoll; K. K. Leang, International Journal of Micro Aerial Vehicles, vol. 17, 2025.
Ground effect (GE) behavior occurs when a hover-capable multirotor aerial vehicle, such as a quadcopter, flies within close proximity to the ground and the vehicle experiences an increase in thrust despite constant power being applied to the propellers. Current GE models assume that the ground plane is flat and smooth. This paper investigates the influence of aerodynamically-rough surfaces on GE behavior for standard two-blade propellers under quasi-steady hover conditions. First, a nondimensional model is proposed that incorporates the aerodynamic roughness and zero-plane displacement height of a rough surface with GE parameters previously found in the literature. Second, a GE model that accounts for surface roughness is described. Third, physical experiments are conducted to quantify the aerodynamic properties of controlled rough surfaces and the GE strength through observations of in-ground effect (IGE) and out-of-ground effect (OGE) thrusts produced by commercially available propellers. The results show that aerodynamically rougher surfaces corresponded to higher IGE thrust. Fourth, statistical analysis of the results supported the accuracy of the proposed model, where the average root-mean-squared error is 0.90% with an average maximum error of 2.39% over all test scenarios. Finally, nondimensional analysis confirmed that when similarity conditions are met, the proposed model follows theoretical projections. These findings can be exploited for vehicle motion control, navigation, and design.
Quadcopter UAVs hovering in-ground effect over different terrain: (a) bed of rocks, (b) field of grass, (c) patch of dirt, and (d) plant with branches and leaves. As illustrated by the results above, the in-ground effect (IGE) intensity increases as the surface becomes “smoother”.
